Deficiencies in the Darwinian Theories:  Islamic Evolution Traverses the Missing Link
By Nadia Alam

The Pre-Darwinian theories in Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries influenced much of the controversy and debate concerning Charles Darwin's theories of evolution, natural selection, and survival of the fittest. Opposition stemmed mainly from the Bible and Christian scholars, although some unorthodox scientists such as Charles Lyell and the Uniformitarians had differing views as well. Islam also contradicts the Christian viewpoint and presents an accurate explanation of these theories which coincides with scientific data. Although Charles Darwin made some significant discoveries, there was and still is much controversy concerning his theories, some of which have been disproved and others that are still being debated today.

Charles Darwin came from a family that was already familiar with the concept of evolution. Erasmus Darwin, Charles' grandfather, published his medical textbook Zoonomia in 1794 and included a brief and obscure chapter on evolution and variation (Evans 15). As a young boy, Charles had read it and was repelled by the technicality of the terms and instead, he turned to nature and developed hobbies such as gardening, hunting, and fishing. In 1831 when he was invited to travel as a naturalist aboard the H.M.S. Beagle, Charles was thrilled and accepted immediately. While on the voyage, Darwin read Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology which, describing the Uniformitarians' views, attributed the changes of the physical world to natural forces such as rain, volcanic eruptions, and erosion, and claimed that organisms adapt according to their environment (Ruse 20). Darwin also read Thomas Malthus' Essay on the Principle of Population. This essay introduced the idea of survival of the fittest by claiming that population increased faster than food production, thereby creating a struggle for existence. Darwin readily accepted the theories of both these men and focused on them during his trip. By the time he got back home, after five years on the ship, Darwin had a lot of information to sort through. Among it was the beginnings of the theories that Charles Darwin is famous for, namely adaptation, natural selection, and survival of the fittest. In 1856, Alfred Wallace and Charles Darwin presented their joint papers to the Linnean Society, who gave little attention to them. In 1859, The Origin of Species was published, and in 1867, The Descent of Man and Darwin's Autobiography. All of Darwin's works were easy to read and uncomplicated; however, his theories and explanations were sometimes vague, as he himself had no explanation for them. An example of this is the obvious gaps in the fossil record, where one layer's fossil specimens differ dramatically from the next layer. Darwin's explanation for the gaps was that the record was "imperfect."

Although Darwin is called "the father of evolution", the prime objective of his career was to research and report on the concept of natural selection. In The Origin of Species, this is defined as the preservation of favorable and the rejection of injurious variations (Darwin 192-228). The whole basis for Darwin's theory was selective breeding, i.e., the ability of man to select certain characteristics and breed only those animals which possess them, thereby "choosing" which qualities are to be preserved. Of course, this can be proven true by genetics of humans breeding animals, but many people reject the idea that the mere element of chance is able to do the same thing with the whole terrestrial population. In What is the Origin of Man?, Maurice Bucaille states that the complexity of the world cannot be chance, just as the selection of letters in a poem is not by chance (52). In addition, natural selection cannot ensure progression in perfect order with simultaneous and coordinated variations. During Darwin's time, the Scientific Creationists were also opposed to this radical new idea. They believed that every species was put on earth and would permanently stay the same (Miller and Van Loon 15-18). Darwin himself said, "I believe in natural selection not because, I can prove, in any single case, that has changed one species into another, but because it groups and explains well (as it seems to me) a host of facts..." (Bucaille 42). In addition, Darwin's theory of natural selection does not explain why certain coniferous trees secrete a chemical which attracts insects to eat it, or why antelopes have huge cumbersome antlers. This is not to say that natural selection does not exist; however, it has no biological influence on evolution.

It might be beneficial to mention at this point that as Darwin grew older, he became more of an atheist and believed less and less in a god that directed the course of events in the universe. He said in his Autobiography, "...I gradually came to disbelieve in Christianity as a divine religion." (Darwin 87) In fact, it has been said that "...Darwinism is the most antireligious and most materialistic doctrine in existence." (Bucaille 38).

A famous discrepancy involved with natural selection was one that Darwin had with his most intimate colleague, Alfred Wallace. Wallace claimed that the complex evolution of the human brain and intellect was directed by God, while Darwin maintained that natural selection was responsible for it (Gould 52-55). Of course, since Darwin was not very religious, he could not understand Wallace's reasoning and this created a rift between the two scientists which was never resealed.

Another controversial theory of Darwinism is common descent. One reason why so many people were opposed to his book The Descent of Man was because it proposed the idea that humans were evolved from apes. Darwin's evidence to support this theory lied in the anatomical structure of other mammals. He said in the book, "All the bones in his [i.e., man's] skeleton can be compared with the corresponding bones in a monkey, bat or seal." (Darwin 10). This explanation does not take into account the differences in the structures. For example, the differences in apes and humans are numerous: the foramen magnum, mandible, arm, foot arches, vertebral column, cranial capacity, pelvis, number of chromosomes (48 in apes), behavior, and many more. Plus, it has been shown that all apes are specifically adapted to tree life, whereas humans are not. Archaeologists and paleontologists agree that the first human form, Australopithecus, appeared from one to five million years ago. They also agree on the fact that apes achieved anatomical stability around nine million years ago, and have not changed since. Plus, science dictates that "Within out present knowledge, all natural processes are irreversible." (Babits 61). Thus, apes were already too "mature" to have evolved into the human form. Another interesting fact is that no one has been able to find an organism that bridges the gap between humans and apes (Bucaille 103-108).

Charles Darwin, in all of his works, refers to the survival of the fittest in terms of species. It is true that organisms with a defect or detriment do not tend to survive, but this is far from saying that nature ensures that the fittest will survive. This theory can be applied within a population, but it has no relevance to the theory of evolution. For example, in one geographical area a certain species might tend to dominate over others, but in another area a different species might dominate. This situation creates a balance in which neither species is at an evolutionary disadvantage. Plus, natural forces such as hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, and earthquakes are indiscriminate and do not make a distinction between the fittest and not so fit. These "natural disasters" can happen anywhere, regardless of the inhabitants involved (Bucaille 39). Social Darwinism is a spin-off of the theory of survival of the fittest. Some use it to justify exploitation and slavery by saying that since these individuals are not fit enough to escape the situation, they should not survive. This theory lacks basic human charity and although many people reject it, there are some who still declare it valid. Through time the initial conflict has diminished, however, it has not totally disappeared. The debate about welfare and government support programs still is a very controversial topic.

Punctuated equilibrialists have long since been a rival of Darwinism. The term actually means the belief that evolutionary variations occur rapidly and new forms appear suddenly (Anshen 189). Darwin claims, however, that the variations needed for evolution to occur are very gradual, sometimes so gradual, that one might not even notice what is happening. This theory, however, suggests that it might have taken tens or even hundreds of billions of years to advance from a unicellular organism to a mammal. In fact, this progression takes only about one billion years (Bucaille 45). Obviously, this data confirms the fact that evolution occurred rapidly (in geological terms). Furthermore, the rarity of similar fossils of the first human forms indicates that these forms were changing rapidly; the excuse of the "imperfections" of the fossil record does not apply here. The evolution described by Darwin is controlled by mutagenesis, random variations which do not cause an organism to leave the framework of its species (Bucaille 40). Clearly, these "random variations" are insufficient to play a determinant role in evolution itself.

Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet de Lamarck is credited with the theory of the inheritance of acquired characteristics which he published in his 1809 book, Philosophie Zoologique (Boris and Van Loon 135). Charles Darwin believed this theory to be true without a possible doubt, and described it fully in almost all of his books. What this actually means is that if an organism acquires a characteristic during its lifetime, the offspring will be born with the same characteristic. The most famous example in the defense of this theory is the giraffe; Darwin concluded that giraffes had acquired their long necks by stretching them in order to reach the leaves at the top of the trees. Of course, during that time, the basic principles of genetics were not known, therefore, many people accepted the erroneous theory. After the advent of Mendelian genetics and appearance of further research on the topic, however, it has been shown that the somatic cells of the body do not pass on these characteristics. Only the germ, or reproductive, cells pass on heritable characteristics. Therefore, the theory of the inheritance of acquired characteristics has been discarded, and modern geneticists and evolutionists have adopted the genetic version of inheritance. This transition occurred with very limited conflict, largely due to the clear evidence in support of genetics.

Christian scholars have said many things concerning the Bible and creation, but by far this is the most astonishing: "It is only in the Bible that we can possibly obtain any information about the methods of creation, the order of creation, the duration of creation, or any other details of creation." (Morris 47) The two creation accounts in the book of Genesis, however, contradict themselves concerning the creation of man. The order described by the first account follows: day and night, the sky, the sea and vegetation, the sun and moon, sea creatures and birds, and finally, land creatures and man (Genesis 1:1-26). Instantly one can see a major problem in this story; the concept of day and night could not have possibly preceded the creation of the sun and moon. In addition, scientists have concluded that the earth actually came into being after the sun, therefore, this account does not prove to be very reliable. The second account differs in that it is the traditional Adam and Eve story, which has been widely accepted as a parable. In The Bible, the Quran and Science, Maurice Bucaille says of the Bible, "It is a masterpiece of inaccuracy from a scientific point of view." (22). These discrepancies illustrate that thus far in the field of science, Christianity has conflicted with scientific discoveries. In the past, "compromise" took place as condemnation and excommunication of the scientist, as occurred with Galileo and Copernicus. Almost no genuine compromise had been made in this area prior to the 1950's, mainly because the two fields differed so dramatically in their beliefs. Darwin believed he could not maintain his religious faith while being a scientist. He repeatedly says that the biggest opponents to his theories were Christian scholars. The Oxford debates of 1860 proved that the clergy was not ready to accept any of Darwin's theories, and that they rigorously maintained their own theory of the permanence of species (Bowlby 85); they believed that every animal and plant was put on earth by God as it appeared to them then. They also believed that the theory of natural selection was demeaning to God because it diminished His role in the formation of the world. The only changes in the structure of the world they accepted were the ones brought about by the great flood and other natural disasters described in the Bible. Neither Darwin nor the clergy was willing to compromise because each believed that their own theories were infallible.

In contrast, the Quran describes the formation of the universe as a big bang, beginning with the creation of the heavens and the earths. The plurality of these terms is stressed in order to indicate that there are numerous galaxies. Next, the formation of water, the development of the land, and the creation of plants and animals took place (7:54, 41:9-12, 21:30, 44:7, 78:37). This account coincides with current scientific data. For example, according to the Quran, humans were created in the fourth period on earth, and geologists have concluded that humans appeared in the quaternary, or fourth, era. Furthermore, the Quran indicates that water was the first thing created on earth, and this is also supported by the scientific conclusion that water is the basis of life. Plus, the Quran advocates evolutionary change (15:19-21), unlike the Christian scriptures. Not all religions conflict with science, as has been shown of Islam. Many of the ideas present in the Quran have been adopted by evolutionists. Today, many Christian scholars have reluctantly compromised traditional theories and are willing to accept the scientific data concerning evolution; however, they maintain that the biblical accounts are symbolic and inspired by God.

Charles Darwin was certainly not the first scientists to encounter such theories as evolution, natural selection, and inheritance of acquired characteristics; however, he is the most famous. By taking the ideas of Thomas Malthus, Charles Lyell, Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck, and other scientists, he was able to develop a comprehensive doctrine in which there were many insights as well as inconsistencies. Many people have debated these erroneous theories through the times, especially Christian scholars and evolutionary scientists. As a result, many of these theories have been discredited, both by religion and science. The Quran, which advocates evolution but not Darwinism, presents a scientifically correct account of the creation of the universe and its development. However, the many different views on creation and evolution create controversial debates about Charles Darwin's theories, which still continue today.

Works Cited

Anshen, Ruth. Creation and Evolution: Myth or Reality? New York: Praeger Publishers, 1985.

Babits, John. Applied Thermodynamics. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, Inc., 1968.

Bucaille, Maurice. What is the Origin of Man? Paris: Seghers Publishing, 1979.

Darwin, Charles. The Descent of Man. London: John Murray, 1871.

------. The Autobiography of Charles Darwin. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1958.

------. The Origin of Species. New York: New American Library, Inc., 1958.

Evans, Edward J. Charles Darwin: Revolutionary Biologist. Minneapolis: Lerner Publications, 1993.

Gould, Stephen J. The Panda's Thumb. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1980.

Miller, Jonathan, and Boris Van Loon. Darwin for Beginners. New York: Pantheon Publishers, 1982.

Morris, Henry. Remarkable Birth of Planet Earth. San Diego: Creation-Life Publishers, 1974.

Ruse, Michael. Darwinism Defended. Reading: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1982.